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Pranayama is a skill which can be acquired only through proper training and practice. It may be called an art of breathing to our best advantage. It is also a science of breathing which explains those advantages and tells us what takes place through the practice of pranayama, in our body and mind. After becoming aware of the usefulness of this art or science through reading a book or by visiting a yoga class, when one decides to learn and practice pranayama, some questions arise at the very beginning. There are three reasons for which one usually turns to pranayama. It may be done as a part of exercises to keep fit. Or there may be a health problem for the solution of which one is advised to take to its practice. It is a happy signs that more and more physicians and consultants are becoming aware of the importance of pranayama for the prevention and cure of certain ailments. There are some persons who practice pranayama as a part of spiritual sadhana, but their number is very small.

We shall consider here the initial steps to be taken for preparing oneself for pranayama before making an actual start.

For learning any technique or art it is very important to have an experienced teacher. Books can provide useful knowledge about most things. But when something is actually to be done or practiced, the knowledge obtained from books is not enough. For example, if one wants to learn to drive a car or to swim or paint or play a musical instrument, it is essential to get instructions from someone who is experienced in doing these things, who knows the do's and don'ts of the practice, whose information is reliable, and who has some interest in teaching.

A few years ago it was not easy to get a good experienced teacher of pranayama. But this did not pose much of a problem as the number of inquiring students also used to be extremely small. Now with the growth of interest in pranayama the number of trained teachers has also increased, although much remains to be desired regarding arrangements for training. While there are many institutions and training centers, a common standard regarding the norms and procedures is not yet evolved. Those who have succeeded in collecting enough followers and money want to make it their own affair. They show little regard for others in the field. It is rather strange to see that the established yoga teachers often show a tendency to go alone, to try to emphasize an individual or his family or institution, and to strive to make a mark by inventing special brand names for some techniques and coining new phrases and names for themselves Just a cursory look at any issue of the many periodicals concerning yoga may show very clearly the excessive concern of these individuals with the projection of their own images, their own ideas, likes end dislikes. Such a thing is not seen in the case of the established sciences such as medicine, physics engineering and psychology. In the case of these sciences an individual's opinion as such has little importance, and what really matters is whether there is any impartial verifiable evidence that would support any particular opinion. But in yoga the situation is very different. Here every opinion, idea, or belief is highly personalized. The established yoga teachers have a vested interest in it.

This situation will change as more and more scientifically trained persons get attracted to the field of yoga in general and pranayama in particular. It is very essential for developing pranayama as an impersonal universally applicable science, that people should give up the immature attitude to strengthen the egoistic and monopolistic tendencies of the so called gurus, by following them blindly, and learn to depend on more verifiable evidence rather than high sounding inventions.

But it is difficult for a student to know who is a good teacher and who is not in the beginning. Those who talk too much, who always abuse others, or are too harsh and superficial do not make good yoga teachers. Similarly, those who want money and cheap popularity should be avoided. A good yoga teacher is moderate in his approach, ready to listen to others, and never extravagant in his claims. A humble, considerate, well educated gentleman conscious of his own limitations and having a good background of scientific training would make a good yoga teacher. "Exact knowledge of the traditional texts, and capacity to explain the underlying facts involved, are two essential qualities of a good yoga teacher. He would have faith in yoga but not blind faith, and an interest in conveying whet he knows to the student without bringing in his own ego. Those who talk much about themselves or their guru must be shunned. One must be considered lucky to have a wise and knowledgeable teacher for pranayama, because such teachers are not very common.

We have said so much about the teacher for pranayama. But what about the student? What qualities should a student of pranayama have? Is everyone fit to practice pranayama? These are some of the questions a student of pranayama should ask himself.

Regarding the qualities of a student it should be said that the minimum expectations from a student of pranayama would depend on what his purpose is, i.e., on how far he wants to go in the practice. For one who wants to practice pranayama as a part of spiritual sadhana with the aim of attaining samadhi or arousing the kundalini power or something similar, a deep sincere interest, incisiveness, patience, and capacity for rigorous work would be essential. Celibacy, control of diet, and strict disciplining of the body and mind would be required. But most of the students of pranayama would not be interested in all this, as they may not have the time and the will to go vet y far in the practice of pranayama. As we have pointed out earlier most of us take to the practice of pranayama for the maintenance or restoration of health. For that purposes the above qualities are not a must.

But any student of pranayama, whether with a limited or deep interest, must have the will to learn the techniques and the basic facts. The purpose and the interest may be limited but not the sincerity and the will to understand. Clarity of understanding is necessary for all students. A casual approach would not produce good results. Persons suffering from a disorder such as asthma or diabetes which is amenable to pranayama, stars with greet enthusiasm and interest, but later the enthusiasm fades away and they become irregular in practice. This should not happen. Half-heartedness does not yield good results.

While learning pranayama for the first time it is better to start the practice when one is in a normal state of health. If the health is impaired or if one is convalescing or very weak, then it is better to postpone the first lessons till one recovers completely. This also holds good when pranayama is to be begun with a view to overcome some ailment. For instance, as a curative measure for asthma, pranayama should not be begun when the attack is on. Pranayama is an exercise of a special kind. Like other types of exercise it also requires that one should not exert oneself in a state of illness. If one is too tired after physical or mental exertion, then pranayama should be done after resting. Similarly, after tiring physical exercise like swimming or wrestling one should rest and then do pranayama. In the same way, pranayama should not be practiced while one is feeling too hungry, or soon after taking meals. If one is awake for a long time and feeling sleepy, then it is better to postpone the pranayama session until one is refreshed again.

The question is often asked whether it is essential to take a bath before doing pranayama. In the minds of many of us a bath is associated with religious observances, and pranayama is very much akin to religious observances. But actually there is no connection between the two. It is true that after taking a bath one's mind becomes fresh and the body clean. This is good for pranayama, but it is not a must.

In short, while doing pranayama one should be in a normal state, and if this condition is fulfilled then almost every one of us is a fit person for practicing pranayama.

Like any other art pranayama can be enjoyed throughout life. But what is the best age to learn it? A general answer to this question is: the earlier the better. At the age of eight or ten years deep breathing in a moderate measure may be started. But holding of breath should tee postponed up to the age of fourteen. Adults may start doing pranayama at any age, there being no upper age limit for making a start. Pranayama provides one of the best preventive means for disease such as asthma, arthritis, diabetes, and disorders of the digestive tract. Those who are prone to such disorders should learn to do pranayama as early as possible so as to get the best results. Even as a curative technique it is good-to take the earliest possible opportunity to start doing pranayama so as to give it a fair trial. The saying Better late than never' is very true about pranayama, and it is always useful to remember it.

Pranayamais equally useful for men and women. Or it may be said that it is even more useful to women than men, because compared to men women lag behind in taking regular exorcise. Their activities are mostly indoors and they have much less physical exertion. So women are more prone to suffer from the lack of exercise. Exercise of the abdomen and pelvis is far more important for women than for men. Pranayama exercises these parts, helps to remove congestion of blood, and tones up the muscles. Thus it has a great therapeutic value for disorders concerning menstruation, position of the uterus and natural child birth.

If a woman understands the importance of something and starts practicing it then everyone in the house is influenced by the beneficial effects of it. Training housewives in the art and science of pranayama would thus have a great additional advantage for the spread of pranayama among all members of society.

Ancient texts abound in reference to the selection of a suitable place and surroundings for the practice of esoteric yoga including pranayama and dhyana. Although that has no relevance for most of us in the present times, it would be interesting to know what our ancient texts recommended. It is recommended that a student should stay in a province with a stable government, ruled by a kind, religiously minded ruler and inhabited by religious masses. There should be no fear of invasion and no disturbance from beasts, thieves, bad characters, insects, epidemics, and natural calamities like draught or floods. One is advised to stay under the direct supervision of a guru in a secluded place, absorbing pleasant surroundings, where all the needs of food, shelter and peace of mind are well taken care of.

Some of these needs would be felt even by the present day -students of pranayama. For instance, one must have for practising pranayama a peaceful, clean, airy place where there is enough privacy and the least of disturbance due to noise, visitors, and other factors. The best place for the modern student would be the home, if the above needs can be fulfilled. Sometimes one may enjoy practicing pranayama at a peaceful place on the bank of a river, or in a park or temple.

In big cities where homes are small and usually crowded, pranayama may better be practiced in groups in big rooms or halls belonging to educational or other institutions, specially engaged for that purpose. But practicing pranayama individually at home is to be preferred wherever possible. Even in the beginning when one learns it in a class it should be learnt individually.

After the techniques are learnt properly and one is sufficiently practiced in the art, it is immaterial whether the daily practice is performed in a classroom or at one's home, in the office or outdoors. While on a journey even a train carriage or an aircraft with a comfortable seat may be considered good enough for practicing pranayama.

This would depend on the climate, social norms, individual liking, and preferences. While practicing pranayama in the open, the clothing should be sufficient to protect the body from cold. In pleasant weather especially while practicing in a room just underwear may suffice. In hot weather a short or loin cloth may be all that is necessary. The clothes should cover the body neither too much nor too scantily. There should be no feeling of discomfort due to tight or too many clothes while one sits in an asana for some time during pranayama. While practising in-groups in classes a common uniform may be desirable.

For ordinary purposes pranayama may be practiced once a day either in the morning or evening. In the evening after a day's work the mind is relaxed and the muscles and joints are" not stiff because they are worked up during various movements of daily life. So one finds it a bit easier to assume a posture for pranayama end to hold it steady for the required length of time. In the morning the joints are rather stiff but they can be made more amenable by some warming up exercise. In the evening one may have visitors or one may have to go out for social calls and for household duties such as marketing. In the morning there is usually less disturbance due to these causes, end so from the point of view of regularity the morning is a better time.

There is another consideration which makes the morning more suitable for the practice of pranayama. It is an important requirement that while practicing pranayama the stomach must not be loaded. There are considerable changes of internal pressure inside the thoracic and abdominal cavities taking place with each round of pranayama. A loaded stomach would interfere with these changes of pressure. In the morning before having breakfast the stomach is already empty. In the evening this may not be the case and that may cause irregularities in the practice. For having an empty stomach one should allow two hours to go after breakfast and four hours after a meal. After a cup of tea about an hour should pass, before one gets ready for pranayama.

The length of a sitting would depend upon how much pranayama one is practicing. Ordinarily about twenty minutes would be quite sufficient. On very busy days, if there is too much work one may have a ten minute sitting rather than going without a pranayama session.

Is it necessary for a student of pranayama to be a vegetarian? This is a question asked quite seriously by those who come to learn pranayama. There is no set answer to this question. The answers given by teachers show a wide range. On the one hand there are those who say that the student of pranayama should give up even taking tea or coffee, not to speak of eating meat or fish. At the other extreme there are some modern gurus who would say that no restriction on diet or sex life is at all necessary. The truth seems to lie midway between these two extremes.

The problem about diet divides itself into two parts: what to eat, and what not to eat. Regarding the latter part, there is a wide variation of opinions as mentioned above. About the former part there is uniformity, and it is said that the diet of a student of pranayama should be sputnik. According to yoga philosophy, everything in the universe shows a mixture of three basic tendencies called gunas in varying proportions. These three gunas are respectively called satvaguna, rajaguna end amoguna. Sattvaguna stands for lightness, cleanliness, brightness, pleasure, happiness, understanding, knowledge, peace, justice, and so on. Rajoguna represents activity, unsteadiness, excitement, envy, anger, obstacles and the like. Tamoguna manifests itself in the form of heaviness, inertia, laziness, lack of drive, pain, darkness, and ignorance. All items of food are divided into three groups. Some are sattvik, having a preponderance of sattvaguna. Some are rajasik, i.e., haying more of rajoguna. And those which give rise to effects characterized by tamoguna are called tamasik foods. In the Bhagavadgita we have a detailed description of these three gunas and their manifestations. Some of the items of sattvik food are: cow's milk, melted butter, rice, barley, honey, sweet fruits, coconut, dates, and some vegetables such as soft gourd. Sattvik food is supposed to give rise to sattvik effects. A student of pranayama is advised to take only sattvik food. Meat, fish, eggs, wine, onions, garlic, spices, and chillies are considered rajasik. Hence they should not form a part of the diet of a sattvik person.

This view about yogic diet, which has been held traditionally on a very large scale may be true in a very general sense. Perhaps it is true only in a few extreme cases. Actually there is no intimate relation between what one eats and what one thinks or does. Otherwise it would be possible to change all the criminals in jails to good respectable persons simply by feeding them on sattvik food.

The question of vegetarianism has two aspects, one dietetically end the other emotional or ethical. Those who advocate vegetarianism often fail to distinguish between these two aspects of the question. This has given rise to some confusion about the problem. It is very important to note that the dietetically considerations of the problem are different from the ethical considerations. Of course, a solution which is both dietetically and ethically sound would be the best. But there is no such single solution which would be useful for all persons, because the nutritional requirements of different persons vary to a large extent. It is no good to prescribe the same kind of diet to growing children, convalescents, nursing mothers, athletes, office goers, and those people who do heavy work, using their muscles. Students of pranayama may belong to all these different groups. To say that they should all eat only static and strictly vegetarian food would set an unnecessarily rigid standard. When the ancient texts prescribed such a standard it was meant for those who had left their jobs and homes for the sake of devoting their life solely to a deep study of pranayama and dhyana. The ancient texts did not err in their prescription of diet, but we shall certainly be committing an error if we apply those prescriptions to all of us in a wholesale manner. Most of us who take to the practice of pranayama have to play our roles also in the family and society.

Ethically the question is not what we should or should not eat, but whether we should kill for the sake of food. This is not a question for the dietician to decide. It is to be decided on what ethical standards we went to follow. Surely, there cannot be a set standard in this regard for all persons and for all times. Such a standard can be prescribed for the advanced students of pranayama, as has been done by the ancient texts. But that may not be applicable to all of us. This much about a sattvik diet and vegetarianism.

An average student of pranayama may still wonder as to what should be the best diet for him. There is a very useful piece of advice on diet in the Hathayoga-pradipika (I. 63) for all of us. It lays stress on what is called mitahara or balanced diet, and says, ``The diet should contain all the necessary nutrients, should be tasty, should have enough milk and milk products, and it should supply nourishment to all the constituents of the body. One should like to eat it. Above all, it should be conducive to the purpose on hand." This last qualification for which the text uses the word 'yogya', meaning St, useful or justified, would allow a variety of items of food, vegetarian or otherwise, depending on the role one has to play in life.

A few general hints on diet may be given here. It is always a good policy to avoid eating or drinking those things which cause disturbance to or which do not suit one's system. What is good for one may not be good for another. Overeating should always be avoided. Eating too many times is a vice. What we think and do is more important than what we eat or what we do not. Not taking wine or flesh or even tea or coffee has no value as such in itself. It is very important to include raw uncooked vegetables such as carrots, radish, onion, cabbage, cucumber and similar items, as well as sprouted seeds (raw or cooked) in the diet. Fruits and milk form the most likable and useful items of diet. The diet should supply enough calories but not an excess of them. The use of fried items should be limited. It may not be necessary to give up any particular item but the excess of anything must always be avoided. Occasional fasting, liquid diet, and missing a meal once in a week or fortnight are very useful things for health. These hints are for people having normal health. In the treatment of disorders diet is to be more carefully regulated.

Pranayama is a respiratory exercise. One may be doing other kinds of exercise also, and it is not necessary fur the student of pranayama to give up other exercises. If that exercise involves much physical activity as outdoor games, running, jogging, swimming, and sun prostrations called Surya-namas kara which is one of the popular exercises in India, then pranayama should be done after that exercise, allowing at least ten minutes to lapse in between, so that the process of respiration comes to normal. Pranayama consists of faking deep and slow breaths and retention of breath. So it should never be combined with any rigorous physical activity which necessitates rapid breathing. In quick forceful activity one automatically holds the breath momentarily, e.g., while lifting or throwing a heavy thing or while jumping. But that is not an example of doing pranayama.

Many students of pranayama may be practicing asanas also, along with other exercises of a rigorous type. In such a case the more active exercise should be done first, then asanas, and then pranayama. If dhyana or meditation is practiced, it should follow pranayama, as pranayama prepares the body and mind for meditation. Taking a walk for a mild exercise may either precede or follow pranayama. While walking or doing asanas the breath should not usually tee controlled deliberately. So pranayama should not be mixed up with other exercises although it may be combined with them in the above sequence.

Pranayama, like any other art can produce pleasant results only with regular practice. Many persons who taken' rasher casually do it regularly for a short time in the beginning, and then irregularity creeps in. Then there may be a long gap during which the benefit, if any, is lost, and then the practice may ultimately come to a halt. If one has realised the need end understood the importance of pranayama then it has to be made a part of the daily routine. Yet there may be gaps in the practice due to exigencies of work, travel or illness. For overcoming these one should have a firmness of mind and a kind of faith and devotion. Laziness is often a major cause of irregularity. Lack of patience is another factor to tee avoided. When there is a gap due to any unavoidable reason it should be remembered that one must resume the practice at the earliest opportunity. If one is doing pranayama alone at home then more strength of mind is required to overcome the interfering factors. If one has joined a class or a group then the influence of others helps to keep on regular practice.

Although practicing pranayama seven days a week and thirty days a month would be ideal, it is not very essential ordinarily to be so regular. Taking one holiday every week does not interfere in any way with the benefits. Two off in a week may be all right if it happens occasionally and not too often. It is a useful general policy to decide that one shall not miss a pranayama session unless there is some unavoidable reason for doing so. One should always try to have a session rather than going without it by curtailing the duration if necessary.

Normally in a resting condition we breathe in and out without noticing the fact that we are doing so, nearly fifteen times every minute, taking a little less than two seconds for each inhalation and slightly more than two seconds for each exhalation. In pranayama this duration of each round of breathing is increased, filling and emptying the lungs as completely as possible in each round. A definite proportion of time is to be maintained for the three acts of inhaling, holding, and exhaling which comprise each round of pranayama. For this an exact measurement of time in seconds becomes necessary. The ancient masters of yoga prescribed different mantras for this purpose. A mantra is a string of words to be repeated again and again with a uniform speed of utterance. It serves two purposes: first, the form of prayer or the meaning of the words of the mantra helps the mind to become peaceful. Secondly, when one learns to recite the mantra uniformly it provides a means to measure time. The famous Gayatri mantra is specially suited here, because it consists of three parts which can be employed during each one of the three stages of a round of pranayama. But that is good for an advanced student, not for a beginner.

A beginner may better use a stopwatch for measuring time. Or a wristwatch with a clear did and a center second may be used. Here the student has to pay attention to two things Simultaneously, that is, the breath and the watch. This is not very difficult, but some students do find it a bit confusing. For them a table timepiece is better. It realms a fixed number of sounds, usually one hundred per minute. Keeping the timepiece nearby and counting the sounds one can adjust the counts for inhalation, exhalation, and retention in each round of pranayama. Here one does not have to look at a watch, but still there are two things requiring simultaneous attention, namely, breathing and counting. If this is found difficult then a metronome which sounds a bell after a specified. passage of time may be used with advantage.

Whatever the means employed, exact measurement of time in seconds should be possible without difficulty, because each round of pranayama has to be completed in equal time.

It is not possible to practice pranayama unless the nose is clear. The passage in both the nostrils must be open. There should be no choking. It is essential to have a uniform controlled flow of air during inhalation and exhalation. It is observed that usually both the nostrils do not flow equally, one having a clearer passage than the other. This normal inequality of flow does not offer any problem for doing pranayama, because the difference is slight. If a nostril is partially clogged then breathing through it becomes uneasy and troubled. And if it is completely clogged then it cannot be used for breathing at all. There are many ways in which a partially or completely closed nostril can be opened up for the flow of air. These are discussed in a branch of yoga called srara-shastra. For instance, if the left nostril is choked it can be opened by lying down on the right side for some time, by pressing a ball or a stick called yogadanda in the right armpit, or by leaning to the left in a standing position end putting pressure on the left foot. For opening the right nostril these techniques are to be followed on the opposite side.

Persons suffering from chronic cold' sinusitis, or asthma often have one or both the nostrils closed. When they want to practice pranayama for a cure of these disorders a problem arises. They cannot do pranayama unless the nasal passage is cleared. For them there is a technique called nisi which may be used with advantage. It is one of the six cleansing techniques of yoga called shuddhikriyas Neti is of two types: jolaneti and sutraneti. The former is easier but less effective. In it jola i.e., water is used for cleansing the nose from inside. Water is taken in a pot specially meant for the purpose. The pot has a spout which is inserted in one nostril. The head is tilted on the opposite side and slightly forward so that water can be poured through the nostril. It comes out through the other nostril. One can learn this technique just in a day. No effort is to be made to suck water or to force it out. The water should be lukewarm, not hot or cold. A teaspoonful of common salt is added to one pot of water (about 300 ml. of water) so that it does not irritate the mucous membrane and acts as a better cleansing agent. After it is emptied one should blow the nose, fill the pot again, and pour water through the other nostril. This cleanses the nasal passage.

But if one or both the nostrils are choked completely then jalaneti is not possible. In that case one may try sultanate. Sutra means a thread. Actually the sutra for neti is made of eight or ten pieces of soft cotton yarn, about 40 cm. in length. Along half of this length another thin fine soft yarn is wound up so that this end can be inserted in one nostril after lubricating it with butter or oil, turning it and pushing it slowly in. About two inches from the tip of the nose the nasal passage curves backward and downward and to insert the end of the sutra down this curvature without causing friction and irritation some care is to be taken. This can be learned by experience. After passing this curvature the sutra goes easily up to the throat. Then the student should open the mouth, pass the thumb and the index finger of the hand in and slowly pull the end of sutra out. Then both the ends of the sutra are held in the two hands between the thumb and the index finger, and are pulled alternating, so that the sutra rubs against the nasal passage and cleanses it. Sutra neti is far more effective than jalaneti for cleansing the nasal passage. After cleansing one nostril the sutra is pulled out through the mouth, washed, lubricated again, and inserted in the other nostril, repeating the whole procedure once again.

Apart from providing a clear nasal passage necessary for pranayama, neti helps to overcome the above disorders.

As mentioned earlier, to practice pranayama one has to assume a sitting posture first and maintain it steadily and effortlessly throughout the session. One may sit on the floor or on a bed or table. A comfortable seat is required. This may be about three feet in length and breadth. If there is a carpet or rug spread on the floor one may put on it a small carpet or blanket folded to make a seat of the required size and cover it over with a clean piece of cloth which can be washed frequently. The seat need not be too thick and soft. A piece of foam cushion can be used. If one sits on a bed no padding may be necessary. The seat should be such that one does not feel the hardness of the floor or surface of the table or bed. One should enjoy sitting. Deer hide or tiger skin is traditionally preferred because it does not allow heat or cold to pass through and it has a very soft feel.

Whatever the material used for preparing the seat, one should see that it offers a plain surface without sagging and allows one to hold an erect sitting posture comfortably.

Why should we not do pranayama in a standing position or while walking or doing some work or lying down? Every student of pranayama should know the right answer to this question. When there is any physical activity in the body involving repeated contractions of muscles, more energy is expended for the work done as compared to a resting state, and the oxidation process in tissues is increased for the supply of energy. This necessitates more oxygen intake, and therefore breathing automatically becomes rapid. This is the opposite of what we do in pranayama. Thus it is clear that pranayama and muscular activity should not go together. It is always necessary to have a resting state of the body while doing pranayama. One may ask here whether it is not the case that while doing pranayama we imbibe more oxygen as compared to normal breathing. This is a belief entertained by many of us and even by some yoga teachers who have not received proper training. But the fact is otherwise. We shall explain this point in detail while discussing the effects of pranayama.

It may be argued that if only a resting body is what pranayama requires, then in a lying position we fulfill this condition best. Regarding this point it is important to note that pranayama involves controlled movements of the muscles of the chest, back, neck, and abdomen. A lying down position interferes with that and so it is to be avoided.

One important characteristic feature of the sitting postures recommended for pranayama is that in them the body is held erect, allowing free movement of all the parts associated with respiration. These are called meditative or meditational postures, because they are the most useful for practicing meditation. They are the best suited for pranayama also. A good practice of pranayama very easily leads to a state of mind necessary for meditation. There are four such postures traditionally available. If one is unable to practice any one of them, which is sometimes the case, then a posture called Sukhasana may be assumed. This should be done only in exceptional cases. We shall describe this posture first and then the four traditional ones.

Sukha means pleasure. Sukhasana is a posture in which one can sit with pleasure, i.e., without a feeling of discomfort. Actually, every posture when mastered well becomes a sukhasana. This is explicitly stated by Patanjali in his definition of a posture where he uses the word 'sukha, as a necessary quality of a posture. Sukhasana means sitting cross-legged with en erect back and neck`. Many people find even this difficult, especially those who have stiff joints. But with a little practice one can sit comfortably in a squatting position as required in sukhasana. This is the easiest of the sitting postures. When the Sukhasana becomes easy, one should learn one of the other four traditional postures, because they are more advantageous.

In one of the ancient texts (Darshanopanishad, III. 12.) Sukhasana is described thus:

"In whatever sitting position one may attain comfort and steadiness, that is called Sukhasana. It is to be assumed by the weak."

Vajra means lightning. It is the name of the weapon of Lord Indra of Hindu mythology. Hardness is its outstanding quality. In Hathayoga and Tantra the word vajra is used for the male sex organ. Vajrasana is a sitting posture in which the thighs are arranged in the form of a vajra This is said in the Gheranda SamhiJa (II. 12). The feet are kept behind the hips with the soles turned upward, heels apart, and toes of both sides touching each other. One sits between the heels and not on them. The knees are kept together in front, the shins touching the floor. The back should be kept erect. Keeping the feet in the position described above is very uncomfortable in the beginning especially if the surface of the floor is hard. So there should be enough thickness and softness in the seat prepared for sitting in this posture. It should not be done on the bare floor. With a few days' practice one starts enjoying it. This is somewhat akin to the posture in which devout Muslims sit for their Namaz prayer.

Swasti means welfare. It is a word to express one's approbation. Swastika is a symbol denoting good luck. It also means crossing the arms or making a sign like the cross. Swastikasana is a posture in which the legs cross each other below the knees and the toes are placed in the inner hollow of the knees, thus imitating the figure of a swastika.

For doing swastikasana the student should first sit on the seat cross-legged and set the right heel against the left groin, putting the toes between the left thigh and calf. The left foot is then set in the same fashion on the right side. The legs should cross each other a little above the ankle. Both the knees should rest well on the seat. The hands are kept on the knees. One should sit erect without stooping or pulling the shoulders back.

Holding the back and neck straight, the body should be held in a relaxed state without there being any stretch or strain. We find a description of this posture in most of the important yoga texts. The above is a summary of that description.

This is somewhat like Swastikasana in appearance, but more strenuous. A novice may not easily be able to tell the difference between the two by seeing their pictures. But the difference is crucial.

Siddhi means achievement. In yoga it usually means mystic supernatural power. A siddha is a person having such powers, or one who has become an adept. Siddhasana is the favourite posture of the siddhas or the posture which gives siddhis. It is considered to be the foremost among the postures of yoga. All major texts have spoken about its importance in high terms.

For assuming Siddhasana, the left heel is set against the perineum, i.e., the space between the anus and the genital organ, placing the right heel over the left one. The knees must be well placed on that seat. The toes are to set between the calf and thigh on the opposite side. Thus this posture differs in the placement of heels from Swastikasana. In the latter the heels are placed on the two sides of the genital organ in the same horizontal plane, while in Siddhasana they are in the same vertical plane with the genital organ, the left one below and the right one above it. In Siddhasana there is more stretch on the legs. The pressure on the perineum and genital organ by the two heels is a special feature of this posture. This, together with the increased stretch on the lower back or rather the tip of the spine plays an important part in arousing the Kundalini power. That is why this posture enjoys the most superior position among all the yoga postures.

In some yoga texts this posture is called Vajrasana. For instance, in the Yogakundali Upanishad (I. 6) we find the technique of this posture described under the name of Vajrasana. One is asked to sit with a straight back, neck and head with the left heel below the penis and right one above it. In some texts the right heel is said to be put below and the left one above. (See Jnaneshwari commentary of the Bhagavadgita, VI. 194,199). This would provide an answer to a question often arising in the minds of students practicing the meditational postures, namely, whether we can change the position of the legs or if one particular foot is always to be kept below and the other one above. It seems that the tradition would allow both the alternatives available. This applies equally to Swastikasana, Siiddhasana, and the next posture called the lotus pose that we are going to describe immediately.

Padma means a lotus. Another word denoting a lot us is Kamala. So Padmasana is sometimes also celled Kamalasana. The significance of this name is that in this pose one imitates the figure of a blooming lotus. Many ancient idols of Lord Buddha and Lord Mahavira are found to be seated in this pose or the Siddhasana pose. The appearance of the lotus is imitated; with the feet and the hands.

The student sits on the seat with the legs in front. The right foot is held with the hands near the ankle and is placed on the left thigh with the sole turned up and the shin touching the thigh. The left foot is then similarly arranged on the right thigh so that both the heels nearly touch each other. Both the knees should be kept on the seat. Keeping the back and neck erect, the hands are placed on the heels with the palms facing up, the left hand below the right one. The thumbs and fingers should overlap each other to give an appearance of the petals of a lotus, the feet imitating two leaves. Many students and yoga teachers are not aware of this fact concerning the significance of the name Padmasana.' So they keep the hands on the knees. In many books we find a picture of Padmasana given that way. While assuming the posture for the purpose of pranayama, however, one hand would be used for closing one or both the nostrils. But while practicing meditation the hands must be kept on the heels as described above.

Padmasana is a widely described posture. Its full form as a meditative posture includes two more techniques, namely-gazing at the tip of the nose and fixing the chin below the throat. In traditional terminology these are respectively called Nasagra drishti and Jalandhara bandha. Similarly, the full form of Siddhasana includes gazing between the eyebrows, called Bhrumadbya drishti and also Jalandhara bandha. But while doing pranayama these two additional techniques are not to be followed.

These postures, whether they are practiced in association with meditation or pranayama, involve folding, pressing, and stretching of the lower limbs, thus reducing the blood supply to them. More blood is supplied to the lower back. An upward pull is exerted on the spine and the wall of the abdomen. A state of deep relaxation is achieved. The combined effect of all these factors is providing rest for the body and mind, improving the process of digestion, removing fatigue and tensions, and, in the long run, arousal of the dormant Kundalini power.

After assuming a steady, erect, and comfortable posture one prepares for the actual practice of pranayama.